ROMAN AQUIDUCT

An aqueduct is a water supply or navigable channel constructed to convey water. In modern engineering, the term is used for any system of pipes, ditches, canals, tunnels, and other structures used for this purpose. In a more restricted use, aqueduct (occasionally water bridge) applies to any bridge or viaduct that transports water - instead of a path, road or railway - across a gap. Large navigable aqueducts are used as transport links for boats or ships. Aqueducts must span a crossing at the same level as the watercourses on each end. The word is derived from the Latin aqua ("water") and ducere ("to lead").

The Romans constructed aqueducts to bring a constant flow of water from distant sources into cities and towns, supplying public baths, latrines, fountains and private households. Waste water was removed by the sewage systems and released into nearby bodies of water, keeping the towns clean and free from noxious waste. Some aqueducts also served water for mining, processing, manufacturing, and agriculture.
Aqueducts moved water through gravity alone, along a slight downward gradient within conduits of stone, brick or concrete. Most were buried beneath the ground, and followed its contours; obstructing peaks were circumvented or less often, tunneled through. Where valleys or lowlands intervened, the conduit was carried on bridgework, or its contents fed into high-pressure lead, ceramic or stone pipes and siphoned across. Most aqueduct systems included sedimentation tanks, sluices and distribution tanks to regulate the supply at need.
The Romans enjoyed many amenities for their day, including public toilets, underground sewage systems, fountains and ornate public baths. None of these aquatic innovations would have been possible without the Roman aqueduct. First developed around 312 B.C., these engineering marvels used gravity to transport water along stone, lead and concrete pipelines and into city centers. Aqueducts liberated Roman cities from a reliance on nearby water supplies and proved priceless in promoting public health and sanitation. While the Romans did not invent the aqueduct—primitive canals for irrigation and water transport existed earlier in Egypt, Assyria and Babylon—they used their mastery of civil engineering to perfect the process. Hundreds of aqueducts eventually sprang up throughout the empire, some of which transported water as far as 60 miles. Perhaps most impressive of all, Roman aqueducts were so well built that some are still in use to this day. Rome’s famous Trevi Fountain, for instance, is supplied by a restored version of the Aqua Virgo, one of ancient Rome’s 11 aqueducts.

The Romans enjoyed many amenities for their day, including public toilets, underground sewage systems, fountains and ornate public baths. None of these aquatic innovations would have been possible without the Roman aqueduct. First developed around 312 B.C., these engineering marvels used gravity to transport water along stone, lead and concrete pipelines and into city centers. Aqueducts liberated Roman cities from a reliance on nearby water supplies and proved priceless in promoting public health and sanitation. While the Romans did not invent the aqueduct—primitive canals for irrigation and water transport existed earlier in Egypt, Assyria and Babylon—they used their mastery of civil engineering to perfect the process. Hundreds of aqueducts eventually sprang up throughout the empire, some of which transported water as far as 60 miles. Perhaps most impressive of all, Roman aqueducts were so well built that some are still in use to this day. Rome’s famous Trevi Fountain, for instance, is supplied by a restored version of the Aqua Virgo, one of ancient Rome’s 11 aqueducts. Many ancient Roman innovations vanished for thousands of years after the fall of the empire. Roman technology was astonishingly ahead of its time, but well-kept trade secrets meant that countless inventions died with their owners. The most famous example is concrete, which disappeared for centuries and was not adequately reproduced until the invention of Portland cement in the early 1800s.

Rome's first aqueduct supplied a water-fountain sited at the city's cattle-market. By the 3rd century AD, the city had eleven aqueducts, to sustain a population of over 1,000,000 in a water-extravagant economy; most of the water supplied the city's many public baths. Cities and municipalities throughout the Roman Empire emulated this model, and funded aqueducts as objects of public interest and civic pride, "an expensive yet necessary luxury to which all could, and did, aspire."
Most Roman aqueducts proved reliable, and durable; some were maintained into the early modern era, and a few are still partly in use. Methods of aqueduct surveying and construction are given by Vitruvius in his work De Architectura (1st century BC). The general Frontinus gives more detail, in his official report on the problems, uses and abuses of Imperial Rome's public water supply. Notable examples of aqueduct architecture include the supporting piers of the Aqueduct of Segovia, and the aqueduct-fed cisterns of Constantinople.

Construction Manager vs.Site Architects: What's the Difference?

Although construction management and architectural design both play a significant role in the building of residential homes, office buildings and apartment houses, there is a great deal of difference between the two disciplines. Education, training and licensure are just a few of the differences.

The Differences Between a Construction Manager and an Architect

Construction managers coordinate and schedule design and construction processes in the building of office complexes, residential homes, and industrial structures. They may be involved in the construction of highways, bridges, schools and hospitals. A construction manager approves and hires specialty contractors for operations such as plumbing, electrical wiring and framing. Construction managers usually work on a project from conception to completion. On large projects, they may be responsible for only one segment of the operation.
Architects design buildings and structures that not only look good but are safe, energy efficient and functional. An architect works with a client to set the parameters of the construction, such as construction objectives, budget and requirements of the structure. Architects often do pre-construction assessments to determine the feasibility of the project and any environmental impact the structure might have. When pre-construction assessment is complete, an architect will then develop the final construction plan, including construction details and building appearance.

Education for a Construction Manager

The norm for a construction manager is a bachelor's degree in building science, construction engineering, construction management or civil engineering..
A Bachelor of Science in Construction Science and Management degree program teaches a student how to manage the construction process and coordinate the skilled trades necessary to complete a project. The degree program focuses on sustainable building practice, cost controls and the technical theory of construction. Topics covered may include building technology, design visualization, construction law, surveying and sustainable building practice.

Education for an Architect

An architect requires more education to practice than a construction manager. Professional architectural degrees can be earned through a Bachelor of Architecture (B.Arch) degree program,  Unlike most bachelor's degrees, this degree takes five years to complete and is designed for students with no previous architectural training.
Aspiring architects who have completed a bachelor's degree in another field or a pre-professional architectural bachelor's degree can opt for a master's degree in architecture to gain professional standing. A master's degree in architecture can take 1-5 years to complete.
A pre-professional bachelor's degree teaches a student the basic concepts and skills required to study architecture at the graduate level. Topics covered in this degree program may include an introduction to structures, construction and design theories. Students explore energy, the environment and history of architecture. Design, presentation and professional practice are studied along with culture, society and building performance.
A Master in Architecture professional degree builds on knowledge learned in a pre-professional bachelor's degree program. Along with theory, technology, social aspects, the environment, history and professional practice, students develop design mastery through a series of design studio courses. A design thesis is required and students complete an internship in an architectural environment. A Bachelor of Architecture (B.Arch) professional degree, which combines the elements of the non-professional bachelor's and the Master of Architecture, has a thesis requirement and room for electives.

Fidenae Amphitheatre Collapse

This is the earliest and one of the most catastrophic events on the list. It occurred in 27AD, in the ancient town of Fidenae located close to Rome, Italy. A local entrepreneur known as Atilius built a wooden amphitheatre on the cheap to celebrate the end of Emperor Tiberius ban on Gladiatorial Games, the construction was rushed in order to meet deadlines. The amphitheatre seated 50,000 and almost inevitably, during the opening ceremony it collapsed, killing 20,000 blood-thirsty spectators. This is by far the worst stadium disaster in history and resulted in the Roman Senate passing laws that only citizens with wealth exceeding 400,000 sesterces would be allowed to host gladiatorial games and that all amphitheatres were to be erected on sound foundation. Atilius was banished from the Empire.

Civil Engineering Disasters-Shakidor Dam

Shakidor Dam was a small dam located near Pasni in Balochistan province of Pakistan. The dam was 485 metres long. It was constructed in 2003 at a cost of 45 million Pakistani Rupees ($758,853) to provide irrigation for nearby farms.
On February 10, 2005, the dam burst due to heavy flooding caused by excessive rainfall, resulting in the deaths of around 70 villagers due to drowning and dragging their bodies into the Arabian Sea. Emergency search and rescue operations by the Pakistani military saved the lives of approximately 1,200 people

Civil Engineering Disasters-Sampoong Department Store collapse

On June 29, 1995 a mall in Seoul, South Korea collapsed with an estimated 1,5000 people inside. In less than 20 seconds, a section of the five-story building came crashing down into the basement, killing over 500 people.  The collapse of the building, which was constructed using steel-reinforced concrete pillars, was blamed on faulty construction. 

The building had a number of structural modifications during its lifetime which contributed to the collapse. It was originally designed as an office building with four floors, and constructed in 1987. When it was later converted to a department store, support columns were cut away to accommodate escalators. The owner, Lee Joon, carried out these modifications over the objections of the original contractors, whom he fired and replaced.
A fifth floor was eventually added to house a restaurant. It involved installation of a heavy concrete slab. A heavy air conditioning unit was added to the building's roof, exceeding the design loads by a factor of four. Haphazard relocation of the air conditioning unit damaged the roof structure.
Prior to its collpase, the building showed cracking due to the overloading produced by the faultily-engineered fifth floor and air-conditioning unit placement.
In 1995, the store was very successful, with about 40,000 customers passing through its doors every day. On June 27, a gas leak was reported, but Joon refused to shut down the store. Two days later, the fifth-floor ceiling showed signs of imminent collapse. However, the only preventive measure taken was to move expensive merchandise out of the way. Some executives were also allowed to leave early.
At about 6 p.m., hundreds of people were eating dinner in the food area of the store’s basement level when the entire structure collapsed on top of them. The fifth-floor ceiling fell in and caused all the floors underneath it to buckle as well. Fires broke out throughout the structure, some fueled by gasoline from the cars parked in the store’s garage. The fires were not put out for several days.
Rescue efforts continued for weeks and, amazingly, one survivor was pulled out 16 days after the collapse. Most people were not so lucky–more than 500 died and another 900 suffered severe injuries. Twenty-five people were put on trial for charges relating to the disaster. Lee Joon was convicted of criminal negligence and received a seven-and-a-half-year prison sentence.

What happened: A 9-story department store building in Seoul completely collapsed in just 20 seconds. Five hundred and one people died, 6 were never found and 937 were injured.
-Why it happened: The building was initially designed as a commercial complex but was changed into a department store without approvals. Restaurants and heavy air-conditioning units were added near the top of the building, increasing the weight load. Cracks in the building began to appear months before the collapse. Renovations to the parking lot in the basement were also blamed for instability. Despite clear signs of major structural faults, an evacuation order wasn’t given until 15 minutes before the building collapsed at 6.05 pm on June 29, 1995.
-Aftermath: The chairman of the department store was sentenced to 7 and a half years in jail in 1996. The court also fined or sentenced to prison terms 12 city officials found to have received bribes in exchange for allowing illegal design changes and slipshod construction of the shopping mall.

Civil Engineering disasters-The Vasa

Well a ship is still a civil Engineering creation. Aspects dealing with buoyancy, centre of mass is basic hydraulic class

Around 4:00 PM on August 10th, 1628 the warship Vasa set sail in Stockholm harbo

r on its maiden voyage as the newest ship in the Royal Swedish Navy. After sailing about

1300 meters, a light gust of wind caused the Vasa to heel over on its side. Water poured

in through the gun portals and the ship sank with aloss of 53 lives. The Vasa lay in shallow waters of Stockholm harbor (at 32 meters depth) and after initial attempts to salvage it failed, was largely forgotten until it was located by Anders Franzen in 1956 .

In 1961, 333 years after it sank, the Vasa was raised and was so well preserved that it

could float after the gun portals were sealed and water and mud were pumped from it.

Today it is housed in a museum specially built for it, near the site where it foundered [6].

That the Vasa is so remarkably well preserved is based on two factors: the sheltered harbor in which the Vasa lay, and the salinity of the water in the Baltic Sea. Because it lay in a sheltered harbor, the Vasa was protected from storms that would otherwise have

destroyed it in the shallow waters of the Baltic Sea. Because of the salinity of the water,

worms that would otherwise have infested and destroyed the wooden vessel are not present in the Baltic. The sinking of the Vasa was a major disaster for Sweden. The country was at war with Poland and the ship was needed for the war effort.

No expense had been spared. The Vasa was the most expensive project ever undertaken

by Sweden and it was a total loss. The ship’s captain survived the sinking and was immediately thrown into jail.

On August 11th, the day after the disaster, a preliminary board of inquiry was convened.

Incompetence of the captain and crew was ruled out and the captain was set free. A

formal hearing was conducted in September of 1628. No exact reason for the sinking was

determined and no one was blamed.

Civil Engineering Disasters- Cleveland East Ohio Gas Explosion

n October 20, 1944, a natural gas storage tank at the East Ohio Gas Co. plant in Cleveland, Ohio, exploded. The plant was located north of St. Clair Avenue near East 61st and East 62nd Streets. Although investigators never discovered a cause for the explosion, witnesses stated that a leak in one of the tanks occurred. Some spark must have then ignited the gas, although, with World War II currently raging, some residents initially suspected a German saboteur. This was one of the worst disasters in Cleveland's history, with 131 people killed. Twenty-one of the victims were never identified.
The explosion occurred at 2:40 PM on a Friday afternoon. The death toll may have been even higher if schools were not still in session, keeping many children away from the heart of the explosion. Numerous homes and businesses were entirely destroyed over several city blocks. To store more natural gas in the tanks, the East Ohio Gas Co. had liquefied the gas. The liquid gas seeped into the city's sewer system, causing manhole covers to explode into the air and creating a fireball underground that ignited numerous homes and businesses. The fireball supposedly was more than three thousand degrees Fahrenheit in temperature. Soon other storage tanks at the East Ohio Gas Co. exploded. Cleveland residents could see the resulting fireballs from at least seven miles away and the smoke from an even greater distance. As the tanks ignited, windows broke more than one mile away, and the bells of St. Vitus Church began to ring.
Almost one-half of the victims, including the unidentified ones, were buried in Highland Park Cemetery in Cleveland. For the people who survived, most lost everything. The flames destroyed several blocks of homes. Many of these people also had withdrawn their savings from banks during the Great Depression, as numerous banks had failed. The flames destroyed these people's life savings. As a result of the explosions, the East Ohio Gas Co. began to store its natural gas underground. The company also helped rebuild the community by paying more than three million dollars to neighborhood residents and an additional one-half million dollars to the families of the fifty-five company workers who lost their lives.

 

One manhole cover was found several miles east. At first it was thought that the disaster was contained, and spectators returned home thinking that the matter was being taken care of by the fire department. At 3:00 p.m., a second above ground tank exploded, leveling the tank farm.